CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Political Science Paper 4

CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Political Science Paper 4 are part of CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Political Science. Here we have given CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Political Science Paper 4.

CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Political Science Paper 4

Students who are going to appear for CBSE Class 12 Examinations are advised to practice the CBSE sample papers given here which is designed as per the latest Syllabus and marking scheme as prescribed by the CBSE is given here. Paper 4 of Solved CBSE Sample Paper for Class 12 Political Science is given below with free PDF download solutions.

Time Allowed: 3 hours
Maximum Marks: 80

General Instructions

• All questions are compulsory.
• Questions nos. 1 to 5 are of 1 mark each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 20 words
• Questions nos. 6 to 10 are of 2 marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 40 words
• Questions nos. 11 to 16 are of 4 marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 100 words
• Questions nos. 17 to 21 are of 5 marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 150 words
• Questions no. 21 is map based question.
• Questions nos. 22 to 27 are of 6 marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 150 words.

Question 1.
“Non-alignment does not imply neutrality or equidistants.” What does this statement mean?

Question 2.
What was Shock Therapy?

Question 3.
What is World Politics?

Question 4.
Whose speech was known as ‘tryst with destiny’?

Question 5.
When and why was the electronic voting machine used in India for the first time?

Question 6.
Explain the political, diplomatic influence of European Union as a super national organisation.

Question 7.
List three challenges to democracy in Nepal.

Question 8.
State any two objectives of Human Rights watch.

Question 9.
How was the Planning Commission of India set up? Mention its scope of work.

Question 10.
How does political leadership of a nation affect its foreign policy? Explain this with the help of examples from India’s foreign policy.

Question 11.
Why was the year 1967 considered a landmark year in India’s political and electoral history? Explain.

Question 12.
How did Emergency of 1975 benefit the Indian democratic set up?

Question 13.
Would you consider the anti-arrack movement as a women’s movement? Why?

Question 14.
How did Europe become main arena of conflict between the superpowers?

Question 15.
“The Soviet Union lagged behind the West”. Comment.

Question 16.
What was 9/11 event? How did the US respond to it?

Question 17.
Read the following passage carefully and answer the following questions:
Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced both civilian and military rulers, with Bangladesh remaining democracy in the Post-Cold War period. Pakistan began the Post-Cold War period with successive democratic governments under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif respectively. But it suffered a military coup in 1999 and has been run by a military regime since then. Till 2006 Nepal was a constitutional monarchy with the danger of the king taking over executive powers. In 2006, a successful uprising led to restoration of democracy and reduced the king to a nominal position. From the experience of Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say that democracy is becoming an accepted norm in the entire region of South Asia.
(i) How did Pakistan begin with Post-Cold War period?
(ii) Mention two reasons for the aspiration of democracy in South Asia.
(iii) Why are these findings significant?

Question 18.
Read the following passage and answer the questions below:
“In the history of nation-building only the Soviet experiment bears comparison with the Indian. There too, a sense of unity had to be forged between many diverse ethnic groups, religious, linguistic communities and social classes. The scale-geographic as well as demographic was comparably massive. The raw material the state had to work with was equally unpropitious: a people divided by faith and driven by debt and disease.” Ramachandra Guha
(i) List the commonalities that the author mentions between India and Soviet Union and give one example for each of these from India.
(ii) The author does not talk about dissimilarities between the two experiments. Can you mention two dissimilarities?
(iii) In retrospect which of these two experiments worked better and why?

Question 19.
Study the picture given below and answer the questions that follow:

(i) What does the cartoon represent?
(ii) Is it any different from our country?
(iii) What message does this cartoon convey?

Question 20.
Globalisation does*not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state continues to be unchallenged basis of political community. The old jealousies and rivalries between countries have not ceased to matter in world politics. The state continues to discharge its essential functions (law and order, national security) and consciously withdraws from certain domains from which it wishes to. States continue to be important. Indeed, in some respects state capacity has received a boost as a consequence of globalisation, with enhanced technologies available at the disposal of the state to collect information about its citizens.
Read the passage given above carefully and answers the following questions:
(i) What are the two most essential functions of the state?
(ii) How do enhanced technologies enable the state to rule better?
(iii) Justify with the help of an example that globalisation gives a boost to the state capacity.

Question 21.
On a political map of world, locate and label the following by giving symbols to them:

(i) A republic of Eastern Europe split into two independent countries peacefully.
(ii) Most dominating republic of Soviet Union.
(iii) Identify two major oil and gas producers of Soviet Union.
(iv) Republic where severe conflict took place after 1991.
(v) Two countries who were declared founder members of Commonwealth of Independent States.

Question 22.
How far is it correct to say the international alliances during the Cold War Era were determined by the requirements of the superpowers and the calculations of the smaller states? Explain.
OR
“Inspite of all perfection, the Soviet system was full of loopholes.” Justify the statement.

Question 23.
Explain the importance and role of concept common but differentiated pertaining to environment.
OR
What are the economic implications of globalisation? How has globalisation impacted on India with regard to this particular dimension?

Question 24.
Throw light on the Swatantra Party and its policies.
OR
Describe the various steps taken to hold the first General Elections in India. How far these elections were successful?

Question 25.
Analyse any three major factors which led the popularity of Indira Gandhi’s Government in the early 1970s.
OR
The Anti-arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh drew the attention of the country to some serious issues. What were these issues?

Question 26.
What is Sardar Sarovar Project? Which benefits are expected to be if the project becomes successful? Also state the issues of relocation and rehabilitation associated with it.
OR
Describe the various steps taken to hold the first general elections in India. How far these elections were successful?

Question 27.
The 1990s witnessed the emergence of powerful political parties. Do you agree? Give reasons.
OR
A major development around 1986 in Ayodhya became central to the politics of BJP as a ‘Hindutva’ party? Explain it.

Answers

Answer 1.
Neutrality refers to a policy of staying out of war and not to help end a war. Non-aligned countries including India worked to prevent wars and rivalries between others.

Answer 2.
Shock Therapy was the transitional form from authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence of the World Bank and IMF.

Answer 3.
World Politics refers to distribution of power among the countries of the world. These countries are engaged to gain and retain power by their capabilities.

Answer 4.
‘Tryst with destiny’ speech was delivered by the first Prime Minister of Independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru while addressing special session of Constituent Assembly as the midnight of 14-15 August, 1947.

Answer 5.
The electronic voting machine was used in India in 1990 for first time for more accuracy and fair dealing while counting as well as it helps to check Booth capturing and other malpractices.

Answer 6.
Political and Diplomatic Influences:

• Two members of the EU — Britain and France hold permanent seats in the Security Council to influence the UN policies.
• The EU also includes various non-permanent members of the UNSC.
• The European Union plays an influential role in diplomacy and negotiations except the military force i.e. the EU’s dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation is remarkable.

Answer 7.
The three challenges to democracy in Nepal were the result of a triangular conflict between-

• the monarchist forces
• the democrats
• the Maoists

These challenges created massive, countrywide, pro-democracy protest in April 2006.

Answer 8.

• To draw global media’s attention to human rights abuses.
• To help in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban land-mines, to stop the use of child soldier, and to establish international criminal court.

Answer 9.
The Planning Commission was set up as :

• It consists of the Prime Minister as its chairman.
• Some ministers or incharges of economic portfolios.
• The members of the Planning Commission have a high public image alongwith an administrative and educational background.

Its scope of work :

• To bring socio-economic change.
• To provide a controlled and faster growth rate.
• To resolve contradictions between societies.

Answer 10.
Foreign policy of any country is the mirror of national interests as in India:

1. During non-Congress government in 1977, Janata Party announced to follow non-alignment genuinely. This implied that the pro-Soviet tilt in foreign policy will be corrected. Since then, all governments took initiatives to restore better relations with China and entered into close ties with the US.
2. In post-1990 period, the ruling parties were criticised for their pro-US foreign policy. During this period Russia had lost its global pre-eminence despite it has been India’s good friend. Hence, India’s foreign policy shifted to a more pro-US strategy.
3. Besides, the contemporary international situation is also more influenced by economic interests than military interests so made an impact on India’s foreign policy i.e. Indo- Pakistan relations have witnessed new developments.

Answer 11.
The fourth general election was held in 1967 for the first time without Nehru:

1. The election verdict was not in favour of Congress and result jolted the Congress both at the national and state levels.
2. Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s Cabinet were defeated including K. Kamaraj in Tamil Nadu, S.K. Patil in Maharashtra, Atulya Ghosh in West Bengal, K.B. Sahay in Bihar.
3. Congress did not lose majority in seven states only but two other states also prevented it to form government due to defections.
4. For the first time any non-Congress party secured majority in any state and in other eight states different non-Congress parties formed the coalitions.
5. These election results were called as a ‘Political Earthquake’.

Answer 12.

1. Between the elections of 1977 and 1980, Congress identified itself with particular ideology, claiming to be only socialist and pro-poor party.
2. The concept of non-Congressism was created among opposition parties.
3. The issues of welfare of backward class began to dominate politics i.e. Northern states elected non-Congress leaders of backward class since 1977.
4. The Emergency tensed between institution based democracy and democracy based on spontaneous popular participation for which party system was to be blamed.

Answer 13.
Yes, we would consider the Anti-arrack movement as a part of women’s movement to provide a platform for women to discuss private issues of domestic violence:

• This movement focused on issues of sexual violence against women either within family or outside.
• Women joined the campaign against dowry and demanded personal and property laws based on gender equality.
• These campaigns contributed a great deal in increasing social awareness as well as shifted from legal reforms to open social confrontations.
• Consequently, movement demanded equal representation to women in politics during the nineties. Hence, 73rd and 74th amendments granted reservations to women in local level political offices.
• Thus, it can be concluded to be a part of women’s movement.

Answer 14.

• Superpowers used their military power to bring countries into their respective alliances.
• Soviet Union used its influence in Eastern Europe so that the eastern half of Europe remained within its sphere of influence.
• In East and Southeast Asia and in West Asia, the US built an alliance called South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO).
• The Soviet Union responded by having close relations with regional countries such as North Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq.

Answer 15.
The Soviet Union lagged behind the West in technology, infrastructure (transport, power, etc.) as it could not cope with the political and economic aspirations of people and resulted in:

• Though wages continued to grow but productivity and technology fell considerably behind that of the West.
• This led to shortage of consumer goods and increased food import every year.
• The above mentioned reasons made the Soviet economy stagnant.

Answer 16.
9/11 event implies a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11 September 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US. The hijackers attacked on important US building such as World Trade Centre in New York, Pentagon building and Capital building of US Congress in Pennsylvania.

The US responded to it by launching ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ to arrest all those who were suspected to be behind this attack. The US forces made arrest all over the world without the knowledge of the government of the persons being arrested, transported and detained them in secret prisons mainly against Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime in Afghanistan.

Answer 17.

• Pakistan began with Post-Cold War period with successive democratic government under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif.
• Ordinary citizens rich or poor or belonging to different religions or institutions view democracy more suitable and support them.
• Because it was earlier believed that democracy could flourish and find support only in prosperous countries of the world.

Answer 18.

1. Commonalities between India and Soviet Union :
   • Both the nations shaped the nation on linguistic basis.
   • To promote welfare motives, the economic and technological developments took place in India also.
   • States were divided on the grounds of geographical boundary and strength of populations also in both the nations.
2. Dissimilarities :
   • Soviet Union was divided into 15 independent republics/countries to be disintegrated.
   • India maintained its unity and integrity even among diversified nature of states and peoples without any more division.
3. The Indian experiment worked better to promote linguistic and cultural plurality without affecting unity and integrity of the nation though India adopted some diplomatic measures to make country united.

Answer 19.

• The US’s massive expenditure of defence and lack of money for peace related issues.
• Our country spends a lot on peaceful initiations first as well as make efforts to find out a peaceful solution first.
• This cartoon conveys message that the countries are ready to spend on military rather than on peaceful initiation.

Answer 20.

1. Essential functions of state :
   • Law and order
   • National security
2. • With the help of enhanced technologies, state can collect information about its citizens.
   • With this information, the state is better able to rule.
   • Thus, the states become more powerful than they were earlier.
3. Flow of capital from rich countries enables the developing countries to invest in most wanted fields to make their country self-dependent.

Answer 21.

• Czechoslovakia Czech (1) and Slovakia (2).
• Russia (3).
• Turkmenistan (4) and Uzbekistan (5).
• Yugoslavia (6).
• Ukraine (7) and Belarus (8).

Answer 22.
The superpowers used their military power to bring countries into their fold:

• Soviet Union used its influence in Eastern Europe backed by the large armies of countries of its alliance.
• The statement is utmost correct about the superpower as well as their alliances.
• On the other hand, the United States built alliance called SEATO and CENTO on the question of North Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq, Russia and China came closer.
• Alliances were made for the requirement of vital national resources.
• Superpowers needed territories to launch their weapons and troops. In return, they helped them in many ways.
• Economic support was another factor.

OR

Inspite of all perfection, the Soviet system was full of loopholes.

• The system was bureaucratic and over-centralised making life difficult for people.
• It stifled the initiative of people due to lack of democracy and absence of freedom of speech and expression.
• Nearly all the Soviet institutions needed reforms but the strict one party control by the communist party made all the institutions unaccountable to the people.
• The Communist Party even refused to give freedom so people of 15 different republics of Soviet Union to retain and manage their own affairs including cultural affairs.
• Though Russian Federation was only one of the 15 Soviet Republics, it dominated the helm of affairs, neglecting people from other regions and making them feel oppressed.

Answer 23.
Compromise and accommodation are the two essential policies to Save Planet Earth by the states but the states from North and South have different notions towards environmental issues:

1. The Northern States (Developed) are concerned with Ozone depletion and global warming whereas Southern States (Developing) want to address the relationship between economic development and environmental management.
2. The developed countries of the North want to discuss the environmental issues which stands equally responsible for ecological conservation.
3. The developing countries of the South feel that much of the ecological degradation in the world is created by developed countries through their industrial projects.
4. And if developed countries cause more environmental degradation they are supposed to take more responsibility on wards.
5. The developing countries are under process of industrialization and they should be exempted from restrictions imposed on developed countries through various conventions like Kyoto Protocol etc.
6. The special needs of developing countries must be taken into considerations in the process of development, application and interpretation of rules of International Environmental Law.

All the above mentioned provisions were accepted in Earth Summit, 1992 while adopting common but differentiated responsibilities.

OR

(A) Economic implications of globalisation :

• It involves greater economic flows among various countries.
• It has enhanced trade in commodities among countries.
• The restrictions on the imports and movement of capital have also been reduced.
• This has spread internet and computer related services across national boundaries.

Impact of globalisation on India :

1. More new jobs have been created in the MNCs like cell phones, fast food etc.
2. India is playing a crucial role among developing countries in trade and commerce by making some companies multinational themselves i.e. Tata Motors, Ranbaxy etc.
   • Direct Foreign Investment have also been increased.
   • It has invited inflow of private foreign capital and export-oriented activities.

Answer 24.
The Swatantra Party was formed in August 1959 after the Nagpur resolution of the Congress which called for land ceiling, takeover of food grain trade by the state and j adoption of cooperative farming. The party was led by old Congress leaders like C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi, N.G. Ranga and Minoo Masani. The party stood out from the other in terms of its position on economic issues.

The Swatantra Party wanted the government to be less and less involved in controlling the economy. It believed that prosperity could come only through individual freedom. It was critical of the development strategy of state intervention in the economy, centralised planning, nationalisation and the public sector. It instead favoured expansion of a free private sector.

The Swatantra Party was against land ceilings in agriculture, and opposed cooperative farming and state trading. It was also opposed to the progressive tax regime and demanded dismantling of the licensing regime. It was critical of the policy of non-alignment and maintaining friendly relations with the Soviet Union and advocated closer ties with the US. The Swatantra Party gained strength in different parts of the country by way of merger with numerous regional parties and interests. It attracted the landlords and princes who wanted to protect their land and status that was being threatened by the land reforms legislation. The industrialists and business class who were against nationalisation and the licensing policies also supported the party. Its narrow social base and the lack of dedicated cadre of party members did not allow it to build a strong organisational network.

OR

The first general elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to February 1952:

• These elections were referred to as 1952 elections because most parts of country voted in January 1952.
• It took six months for campaigning, polling and counting to be completed.
• Elections were competitive because there were on an average more than four candidates for each seat.
• The level of participation was encouraging to vote out in the election.
• The results were declared and accepted as fair even by losers to prove critics wrong.

These elections were successful :

• The losing of the parties was also accepted as fair.
• These elections became a landmark in the history of democracy.
• It was no longer possible to argue that democratic elections could not be held in conditions of poverty or lack of education. Instead, it can be practised anywhere in the world.

Answer 25.

1. The fifth general elections to Lok Sabha were held in February 1971. The electoral
   contest appeared to be loaded against Congress (R). After all, the new Congress was just one faction of an already weak party. Everyone believed that the real organizational strength of the Congress Party was under the command of Congress (O). To make matters worse for Indira Gandhi, all the major non-Communist, non-Congress opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known as the Grand Alliance. Yet the new Congress had something that its big opponents lacked — it had an issue, an agenda and a positive slogan. The Grand Alliance did not have a coherent political programme. Indira Gandhi said that the opposition alliance had only one common programme Indira Hatao (Remove Indira). In contrast to this, she put forward a positive programme captured in the famous slogan: Garibi Hatao (remove poverty).
2. Indira Gandhi focussed on the growth of the public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban poverty, removal of disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition of princely privileges. Thus, the slogan Garibi Hatao and the programmes that followed it were part of Indira Gandhi’s political strategy of building an Independent nationwide political support base. As a result, she won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes on its own in the Lok Sabha elections of 1971.
3. Soon after the 1971 Lok Sabha election, a major political and military crises broke out in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The 1971 elections were followed by the crisis in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pak war leading to the establishment of Bangladesh. These events added to the popularity of Indira Gandhi. Even the opposition leaders admired her statesmanship.

OR

Women in Nellore came together in spontaneous local initiatives to protest against arrack and forced the closure of wine shops. And this movement spread slowly all over the state.
Issues relating to movements :

• The Anti-Arrack movement aimed at prohibition on the sale of arrack.
• Its demand touched upon larger section of social, economic and political issues which had established a close nexus between crime and politics.
• Women openly discussed the issue of domestic violence like dowry, sexual violence etc.
• Anti-Arrack movement provided a platform to discuss private issues of domestic violence.

Issues relating to movements :

• The Anti-arrack movement aimed at prohibition on the sale of arrack.
• Its demand touched upon larger section of social, economic and political issues which had established a close nexus between crime and politics.
• Women openly discussed the issues of domestic violence like dowry, sexual violence etc.
• Anti-arrack movement provided a platform to discuss private issues of domestic violence.

Answer 26.
Sardar Sarovar Project is an ambitious developmental project which was launched in the Narmada valley of central India in early eighties. The project consisted of 30 big dams, 135 medium sized and around 3,000 small dams to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Advocates of the multipurpose mega-scale dam in Gujarat say that it would benefit huge areas of Gujarat and the three adjoining states in terms of availability of drinking water and water for irrigation, generation of electricity and increase in agricultural production. Many more subsidiary benefits like effective flood and drought control in the region were linked to the success of this dam. In the process of construction of the dam, 245 villages from these states were expected to get submerged. It required relocation of around two and a half lakh people from these villages. Issues of relocation and proper rehabilitation of the project-affected people were first raised by local activist groups. It was around 1988-89 that the issues crystallised under the banner of Narmada Bachao Aandolan, a loose collective of local voluntary organisation.
Reasons of oppose by Narmada Bachao Aandolan :

1. Narmada Bachao Aandolan (NBA) linked its opposition to Sardar Sarovar Project with larger issues concerning the nature of ongoing developmental projects, efficacy of model of development that the country followed and what constituted public interest in a democracy.
2. It demanded that there should be a cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects due to construc-tion of dam submerged around 245 villages to require two half a lakh population to be relocated.
3. The movement demanded proper rehabilitation of all those to be affected from the construction of these projects.
4. This movement also questioned the nature of decision making process to be in forming of mega scale development projects.
5. Movement also insisted that local communities must have a say in such decision making alongwith an effective control over natural resources.
6. Hence, NBA achieved a comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by government in 2003.

Democratic strategies used by it :

• Mobilisation of support at inter-national level
• Appeals to judiciary
• Public rallies
• Forms of Satyagraha

OR

The first general elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to February 1952:

• These elections were referred to as 1952 elections because most parts of country voted in January 1952.
• It took six months for campaigning, polling and counting to be completed.
• Elections were competitive because there were on an average more than four candidates for each seat.
• The level of participation was encouraging to vote out in the election.
• The results were declared and accepted as fair even by losers to prove critics wrong.

These elections were successful :

• The losing of the parties was also accepted as fair.
• These elections became a landmark in the history of democracy.
• It was no longer possible to argue that democratic elections could not be held in conditions of poverty or lack of education. Instead, it can be practicised anywhere in the world.

Answer 27.
The 1990s witnessed the emergence of powerful parties and movements that represented the Dalit and backward castes (Other Backward Classes or OBC). Many of these parties represented powerful regional assertion as well. These parties played a major role in the United Front government that came to power in 1996. The United Front was similar to the National Front which included Janata Dal and several regional parties. This time the BJP did not support the government. The United Front government was supported by the Congress. In 1996, the Left continued to support the non-Congress government. This time the Congress, supported it, as both the Congress and the Left wanted to keep the BJP out of power.

But they did not succeed for long, as the BJP continued to consolidate its position in the elections of 1991 and 1996. It emerged as the largest party in 1996 elections and was invited to form the government. Then most other parties were opposed to its political and therefore, the BJP government could not secure a majority in the Lok Sabha. But finally it came to power by leading a coalition government from May 1998 to June 1999. Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister during both these NDA governments and his government completed its full term.

OR

A major development was the order by the Faizabad district court in February 1986. The court ordered that the Babri Masjid premises be unlocked so that Hindus could offer prayers at the site which they considered as a temple. A dispute had been going on for many decades over the mosque known as Babri Masjid at Ayodhya. The Babri Masjid was a 16th century mosque in Ayodhya, built by Mir Baqi, a general of Mughal emperor Babur. Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple for Lord Rama in what is believed to be his birth place. The dispute took the form of a court case and has continued for many decades. In the late 1940s, the mosque was locked up as the matter was with court.

As soon as the Babri Masjid was opened mobilisation started on both sides. Many Hindu and Muslim organisations tried to mobilise their communities. Suddenly this local dispute became a major national issue and led to communal tensions. The BJP made this issue its major electoral and political plank. Along with many other organisations like the Rashtriya Swemsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), it convened a series of symbolic and mobilisational programmes. This large scale mobilisation led to surcharged atmosphere and many instances of communal violence. The BJP, in order to generate public support, took out a massive march called the Rathyatra from Somnath in Gujarat to Ayodhya in UP.

In December 1992, the organisations supporting the construciton of the temple had organised a Karseva, meaning voluntary service by the devotees, for building the Ram temple. The situation had become tense all over the country and especially at Ayodhya. The Supreme Court had ordered the State government to take care that the disputed site will not be endangered.
But on 6 December 1992, thousands of people gathered from all over the country at Ayodhya and demolished the mosque. This news led to clashes between the Hindus and Muslims in many parts of the country. The violence in Mumbai erupted again in January 1993 and continued for over two weeks. The events at Ayodhya led to a series of other developments.

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